อีสเตอร์คือเทศกาลหนึ่งในฤดูใบไม้ผลิซึ่งในประเทศที่นับถือคริสตศาสนา
อีสเตอร์ คือ การเฉลิมฉลองวันหยุดทางศาสนาซึ่งเป็นวันที่พระเยซูคริสต์พระบุตรของพระเจ้าได้ทรงฟื้นพระชนม์ขึ้นจากความตาย แต่ นอกจากการเฉลิมฉลองเทศกาลอีสเตอร์นี้แล้วยังมีการฉลองในลักษณะประเพณีต่างๆและจากตำนานต่างๆซึ่งมาจากที่มาทางศาสนาที่แตกต่างกัน และไม่ได้เกี่ยวข้องกับความเชื่อทางศาสนาคริสต์
นักวิชาการทางด้านศาสนาได้ยอมรับต้นตอที่มาของคำว่าอีสเตอร์ซึ่งศึกษาโดยนักวิชาการทางด้านศาสนาชาวอังกฤษอังกฤษในศตวรรษที่8 ที่ชื่อว่าเซนต์ เบเด(St.Bede) ซึ่งเชื่อว่า ชื่อ"Easter" นั้นมาจากภาษาสแกนดิเนเวียนว่า"OSTRA" และในภาษาทิวโทนิค(ภาษาพื้นเมืองสแกนดิเนวีย)ว่า"Ostern" หรือ "Eastre" ซึ่งเป็นชื่อของเทพธิดาแห่งเทพปกรณัมผู้ที่นำฤดูใบไม้ผลิและการเจริญพันธุ์และยังเป็นผู้ที่ถูกสักการะและเฉลิมฉลองในวันที่เรียกว่าVernal Equinox(วันในฤดูใบไม้ผลิที่มีกลางวันและกลางคืนเท่าๆกันพอดี)และประเพณีที่เกี่ยวข้องกับ การฉลองเทศกาลแห่งการมีชีวิตอยู่ โดยใช้กระต่ายอีสเตอร์เป็นสัญลักษณ์และการเจริญพันธุ์ซึ่งใช้ไข่อีสเตอร์เป็นสัญญลักษณ์ ซึ่งไข่เหล่านั้นถูกทาสีอย่างสดใสและสวยงามซึ่งแสดงให้เห็นถึงความหมายของแสงอาทิตย์ที่สดใสในฤดูใบไม้ผลิและถูกใช้ในการแข่งขันโยนไข่อีสเตอร์(เป็นประเพณีอย่างนึงในวันอีสเตอร์)และไข่อีสเตอร์ยังใช้มอบให้เป็นของขวัญแก่กันด้วยการเฉลิมฉลองของชาวคริสต์ในเทศกาลอีสเตอร์ นั้นเกิดจากการนำเอาหลายประพณีมารวมกันซึ่งโดยรวมแล้วมีความเกี่ยวข้องกันระหว่างเทศกาลอีสเตอร์
และเทศกาลPassover หรือเทศกาลปัสกาของชาวยิวนั่นเอง หรืออีกชื่อนึงซึ่งชาวยุโรปชอบเรียกกันคือเทศกาลPasch ซึ่งใช้เรียกวันอีสเตอร์ในแถบยุโรปนั่นเอง
เทศกาลปัสกานั้นคือเทศกาลเฉลิมฉลอง ที่สำคัญมากในชาวยิวซึ่งเป็นการฉลองต่อเนื่องเป็นเวลา 8 วัน เพื่อระลึกถึงการเดินทางมายังดินแดนแห่งพันธะสัญญา(คานาอัน)และการเป็นอิสระของชนชาติอิสราเอลจากการตกเป็นทาสในอียิปต์
ซึ่งคริสเตียนรุ่นหลังๆที่มีเชื้อสายยิวได้นำเอาประเพณีฮิบรู (ยิว)รวมถึงเทศกาลอีสเตอร์ในฐานะของเทศกาลปัสกายุคใหม่ ซึ่งเป็นการระลึกถึงพระเมสไซอาห์(พระเยซู)ซึ่งได้มีผู้เผยพระวจนะได้ทำนายไว้ล่วงหน้า (หาอ่านเพิ่มเติมได้ในเศคาริยาห์ 9:9)
เทศกาลอีสเตอร์ได้ถูกรักษาไว้โดยเคร่งครัดเริ่มโดยคริสตจักรในประเทศทางตะวันตกโดยนับเอาวันอาทิตย์แรกหลังจากวันพระจันทร์เต็มดวงซึ่งเกิดขึ้นหลังวัน Vernal Equinox (21มีนาคม) ดังนั้นวันอีสเตอร์จึงเป็นเทศกาลที่ไม่มีวันที่ที่แน่นอน แต่จะเคลื่อนไปมาทุกปีอยู่ระหว่างวันที่ 22 มีนาคม ถึง
25 เมษายน คริสตจักรในประเทศทางตะวันตกซึ่งอยู่ใกล้กับที่เกิดของศาสนาคริสต์และยังต้องดำรงประเพณีดั้งเดิมอย่างเข้มแข็ง ได้รักษาวันอีสเตอร์ไว้ในช่วงเวลาเดียวกันกับเทศกาลปัสกา
วันอีสเตอร์ยังเป็นวันสิ้นสุดของเทศกาลมหาพรต(Lenten Season)ซึ่งครอบคลุมเวลา 46วัน ซี่งเริ่มในวันที่เรียกว่า วันพุธรับเถ้า(Ash Wednesday) และจบลงในวันอีสเตอร์ แต่เฉพาะเทศกาลมหาพรตเองนั้นมีกำหนดเวลา 40 วัน เพราะจะไม่นับวันอาทิตย์ทั้ง 6 วันรวมอยู่ในเทศกาลมหาพรตด้วย(เทศกาลมหาพรตเป็นเทศกาลของศาสนาคริสต์นิกายคาทอลิก)
สัปดาห์ศักสิทธิ์(Holy Week) คือสัปดาห์สุดท้ายของเทศกาลมหาพรต ซึ่งเริ่มต้นในวันปาล์มซันเดย์ซึ่งเป็นวันที่พระเยซูทรงเสด็จเข้ากรุงเยรูซาเลมอย่างผู้พิชิตและฝูงชนโห่ร้องต้อนรับพระองค์และได้เอาใบปาล์มโบกต้อนรับและเอาเสื้อผ้าปูลงตามทางเพื่อให้พระองค์ทรงดำเนินผ่าน เพราะพระลักษณะที่พระองค์เสด็จมานั้นตรงกับพระวจนะของพระเจ้าที่มีผู้เผยพระวจนะทำนายไว้ล่วงหน้า (เศคาริยาห์ 9:9) และในวันพฤหัสศักสิทธิ์เป็นที่ระลึกถึงวันที่พระองค์ทรงรับประทานอาหารร่วมกับสาวกของพระองค์เป็นมื้อสุดท้าย(The Last Supper) ซึ่งเกิดขึ้นในตอนเย็นก่อนวันที่พระองค์จะถูกตรึงบนไม้กางเขน และในวันศุกร์ของสัปดาห์ศักสิทธิ์นี้ถูกเรียกว่าวันศุกร์ประเสริฐ(Good Friday) ซึ่งเป็นวันที่พระองค์ทรงถูกตรีงและสิ้นพระชนม์บนไม้กางเขน
สัปดาห์ศักสิทธิ์และเทศกาลมหาพรตนั้นจะสิ้นสุดพร้อมกันใน วันอาทิตย์ซึ่งเป็นวันอีสเตอร์ ซึ่งเป็นวันที่พระเยซูคริสต์พระบุตรของพระเจ้าทรงฟื้นคืนพระชนม์ขี้นมาจากความตายนั่นเอง
วันเสาร์ที่ 31 กรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2553
Mother Teresa
Early life
Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (Gonxhe meaning "rosebud" in Albanian) was born on 26 August 1910, in Üsküb, Ottoman Empire (now Skopje, capital of the Republic of Macedonia). Although she was born on 26 August, she considered 27 August, the day she was baptized, to be her "true birthday."She was the youngest of the children of a family from Shkodër, Albania, born to Nikollë and Drana Bojaxhiu.Her father, who was involved in Albanian politics, died in 1919 when she was eight years old. After her father's death, her mother raised her as a Roman Catholic. According to a biography by Joan Graff Clucas, in her early years Agnes was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and their service, and by age 12 was convinced that she should commit herself to a religious life. She left home at age 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto as a missionary. She never again saw her mother or sister.
Agnes initially went to the Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland to learn English, the language the Sisters of Loreto used to teach school children in India. She arrived in India in 1929, and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, near the Himalayan mountains. She took her first religious vows as a nun on 24 May 1931. At that time she chose the name Teresa after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries. She took her solemn vows on 14 May 1937, while serving as a teacher at the Loreto convent school in eastern Calcutta.
Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. The Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city; and the outbreak of Hindu/Muslim violence in August 1946 plunged the city into despair and horror.
Missionaries of Charity
On 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as "the call within the call" while traveling to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. "I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith." She began her missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple white cotton sari decorated with a blue border, adopted Indian citizenship, and ventured out into the slums. Initially she started a school in Motijhil; soon she started tending to the needs of the destitute and starving. Her efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the prime minister, who expressed his appreciation.
Teresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulties. She had no income and had to resort to begging for food and supplies. Teresa experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months. She wrote in her diary:
Our Lord wants me to be a free nun covered with the poverty of the cross. Today I learned a good lesson. The poverty of the poor must be so hard for them. While looking for a home I walked and walked till my arms and legs ached. I thought how much they must ache in body and soul, looking for a home, food and health. Then the comfort of Loreto [her former order] came to tempt me. 'You have only to say the word and all that will be yours again,' the Tempter kept on saying ... Of free choice, my God, and out of love for you, I desire to remain and do whatever be your Holy will in my regard. I did not let a single tear come.
Teresa received Vatican permission on 7 October 1950 to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity.Its mission was to care for, in her own words, "the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone." It began as a small order with 13 members in Calcutta; today it has more than 4,000 nuns running orphanages, AIDS hospices and charity centers worldwide, and caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine.
In 1952 Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the city of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. She renamed it Kalighat, the Home of the Pure Heart (Nirmal Hriday).Those brought to the home received medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of their faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus received water from the Ganges, and Catholics received the Last Rites. "A beautiful death," she said, "is for people who lived like animals to die like angels—loved and wanted."Mother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food.
As the Missionaries of Charity took in increasing numbers of lost children, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for them. In 1955 she opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth.
The order soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s had opened hospices, orphanages and leper houses all over India. Mother Teresa then expanded the order throughout the globe. Its first house outside India opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters.Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968; during the 1970s the order opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and the United States.
Her philosophy and implementation have faced some criticism. David Scott wrote that Mother Teresa limited herself to keeping people alive rather than tackling poverty itself. She has also been criticized for her view on suffering: according to an article in the Alberta Report, she felt that suffering would bring people closer to Jesus. The quality of care offered to terminally ill patients in the Homes for the Dying has been criticised in the medical press, notably The Lancet and the British Medical Journal, which reported the reuse of hypodermic needles, poor living conditions, including the use of cold baths for all patients, and an approach to illness and suffering that precluded the use of many elements of modern medical care, such as systematic diagnosis. Dr. Robin Fox, editor of The Lancet, described the medical care as "haphazard", as volunteers without medical knowledge had to take decisions about patient care, because of the lack of doctors. He observed that her order did not distinguish between curable and incurable patients, so that people who could otherwise survive would be at risk of dying from infections and lack of treatment.
The Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963, and a contemplative branch of the Sisters followed in 1976. Lay Catholics and non-Catholics were enrolled in the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa, the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, and the Lay Missionaries of Charity. In answer to the requests of many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa also began the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests, and in 1984 founded with Fr. Joseph Langford the Missionaries of Charity Fathers to combine the vocational aims of the Missionaries of Charity with the resources of the ministerial priesthood. By 2007 the Missionaries of Charity numbered approximately 450 brothers and 5,000 nuns worldwide, operating 600 missions, schools and shelters in 120 countries.
International charity
In 1982, at the height of the Siege of Beirut, Mother Teresa rescued 37 children trapped in a front line hospital by brokering a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and Palestinian guerrillas. Accompanied by Red Cross workers, she traveled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients.
When Eastern Europe experienced increased openness in the late 1980s, she expanded her efforts to Communist countries that had previously rejected the Missionaries of Charity, embarking on dozens of projects. She was undeterred by criticism about her firm stand against abortion and divorce stating, "No matter who says what, you should accept it with a smile and do your own work."
Mother Teresa traveled to assist and minister to the hungry in Ethiopia, radiation victims at Chernobyl, and earthquake victims in Armenia. In 1991, Mother Teresa returned for the first time to her homeland and opened a Missionaries of Charity Brothers home in Tirana, Albania.
By 1996, she was operating 517 missions in more than 100 countries.Over the years, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity grew from twelve to thousands serving the "poorest of the poor" in 450 centers around the world. The first Missionaries of Charity home in the United States was established in the South Bronx, New York; by 1984 the order operated 19 establishments throughout the country.
The spending of the charity money received has been criticized by some. Christopher Hitchens and the German magazine Stern have said Mother Teresa did not focus donated money on alleviating poverty or improving the conditions of her hospices, but on opening new convents and increasing missionary work.
Additionally, the sources of some donations accepted have been criticized. Mother Teresa accepted donations from the autocratic and corrupt Duvalier family in Haiti and openly praised them. She also accepted 1.4 million dollars from Charles Keating, involved in the fraud and corruption scheme known as the Keating Five scandal and supported him before and after his arrest. The Deputy District Attorney for Los Angeles, Paul Turley, wrote to Mother Teresa asking her to return the donated money to the people Keating had stolen from, one of whom was "a poor carpenter". The donated money was not accounted for, and Turley did not receive a reply.
Colette Livermore, a former Missionary of Charity, describes her reasons for leaving the order in her book Hope Endures: Leaving Mother Teresa, Losing Faith, and Searching for Meaning. Livermore found what she called Mother Teresa's "theology of suffering" to be flawed, despite being a good and courageous person. Though Mother Teresa instructed her followers on the importance of spreading the Gospel through actions rather than theological lessons, Livermore could not reconcile this with some of the practices of the organization. Examples she gives include unnecessarily refusing to help the needy when they approached the nuns at the wrong time according to the prescribed schedule, discouraging nuns from seeking medical training to deal with the illnesses they encountered (with the justification that God empowers the weak and ignorant), and imposition of "unjust" punishments, such as being transferred away from friends. Livermore says that the Missionaries of Charity "infantilized" its nuns by prohibiting the reading of secular books and newspapers, and emphasizing obedience over independent thinking and problem-solving.
Declining health and death
Mother Teresa suffered a heart attack in Rome in 1983, while visiting Pope John Paul II. After a second attack in 1989, she received an artificial pacemaker. In 1991, after a battle with pneumonia while in Mexico, she suffered further heart problems. She offered to resign her position as head of the Missionaries of Charity. But the nuns of the order, in a secret ballot, voted for her to stay. Mother Teresa agreed to continue her work as head of the order.
In April 1996, Mother Teresa fell and broke her collar bone. In August she suffered from malaria and failure of the left heart ventricle. She had heart surgery but it was clear that her health was declining. When she fell ill, she made the controversial decision to be treated at a well-equipped hospital in California instead of one of her own clinics. The Archbishop of Calcutta, Henry Sebastian D'Souza, said he ordered a priest to perform an exorcism on Mother Teresa with her permission when she was first hospitalized with cardiac problems because he thought she may be under attack by the devil.
On 13 March 1997, she stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity. She died on 5 September 1997.
At the time of her death, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity had over 4,000 sisters, and an associated brotherhood of 300 members, operating 610 missions in 123 countries.[citation needed] These included hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counseling programs, personal helpers, orphanages, and schools. The Missionaries of Charity were also aided by Co-Workers, who numbered over 1 million by the 1990s.
Mother Teresa lay in state in St Thomas, Kolkata for one week prior to her funeral, in September 1997. She was granted a state funeral by the Indian Government in gratitude for her services to the poor of all religions in India
วันพุธที่ 28 กรกฎาคม พ.ศ. 2553
วิธีหน้าเนียนใส
1.ขั้นแรกก็ต้องปรับตัวเองร่างกายให้ดีก่อน พักผ่อนให้มากกว่า 6 ชม.เป็นต้นไปจ่ะ
เลิกการนอนดึกเถอะนะ เพราะเวลา เที่ยงคืน - ตี3 เป็นช่วงที่ร่างกายกำลังเผาผลาญ
และบำรุงผิวหน้าจ๊ะ จะได้ไม่อ้วนด้วยนะ !!
2.กินน้ำเยอะๆ เพื่อให้ผิวดี บวกกับผลไม้
3.เมื่อมั่นใจว่าร่างกายเราพร้อมแล้ว ก็อย่าเครียดด้วยล่ะ !!! มันเกี่ยวจิงๆน๊ะ
4.เอาล่ะมาเริ่มที่หน้ากันเล้ย ขั้นแรกให้ปรับสภาพผิวหน้าใครที่หน้ามีสิว หรือรอยด่างดำ
ก็ให้ใช้ผงวิเศษนะ ผสมกับน้ำ ให้พอข้น แล้วทาให้ทั่วหน้า พอกไว้ทั้งคืน เช้าวันต่อมาก็ล้าง
ด้วยน้ำเปล่าจ๊ะ ทำจนกว่าจะหาย แล้วเลิกใช้นะ ใช้ต่อกันไม่ดี
แต่บางคนที่ไม่มีสิว ก็ให้ใช้ผงวิเศษผสมกับน้ำมะนาว 1:4 ทาทิ้งไว้ 5-10
นาทีแล้วล้างออกด้วยน้ำเปล่า จ๊ะ สำหรับวิธีนี้ให้ 2-3 วันใช้ทีนะ
5.เอาล่ะหน้าเริ่มเสมอเท่ากันแล้วก็ต้องบำรุงให้มันเป็นอย่างนี้ตลอดไป โดยเลือกใช้ครีม
บำรุงหน้าที่บอกว่า "ปรับหน้าขาวเสมอเท่ากัน" เราใช้ของการ์นิเย่สีเขียว Pure a
ไม่แพง ดีด้วยจ๊ะ
6.ต่อไปก็เป็นการปรับหน้าขาวแล้วน๊า โดยเลือกใช้โฟมล้างหน้าที่เหมาะกับตัวเอง
ที่เขียนว่าปรับหน้าขาวนะจ๊ะ โฟมล้างหน้าอยากรู้ว่าแพ้ไม่แพ้ 1 อาทิตย์ออกอาการจ่ะ
7.เมื่อเวลาเจอแดดอย่าไปกลัวมันนะ !! สู้มัน ทาครีมกันแดด เลือกใช้ให้เหมาะกับ
แดดที่เจอนะจ๊ะ อย่าเวอร์ไป แล้วก็ควรทาก่อนออกแดด ซัก 30 นาทีนะจ๊ะ ถ้าอยากให้
หน้าเนียนก็เลือกที่ผสมตัวครีมทำให้หน้าสว่าง อย่าคิดว่าเหมือนรองพื้นนะไม่เหมือนกันจ่ะ
เราใช้ของ Misha ลองไปซื้อดูนะ ไม่แพง 300 ใช้ได้ประมาน 3 เดือนได้เรย
วิธีหน้าเนียนใสแบบธรรมชาติ
1.ทาครีมกันแดดตามปกติ
2.ลงด้วยแป้งตะหลับ ที่มีกันแดดด้วยก็ดีนะ ถ้าจะให้ดีเอาพัฟให้เปียกน้ำหมาดๆ จะได้
ทาแล้วติดนานๆจ๊ะ แป้งตัวนี้จะปรับให้ผิวหน้าเท่ากัน อย่าเลือกที่ขาวเวอร์เกินหน้าล่ะ
ถามคนขายก่อนนะ !! เช่น คนผิวขาวเหลือง เบอร์1 เป็นต้น
3.ทิ้งไว้ซัก 2 นาที ให้แป้งกลืนกับหน้า
4.ทาแป้งเด็ก ทับไปอีกที แป้งเด็กนี่คือแบบ เด็กเลยนะ !! แค่นีเพื่อนๆก็จะได้หน้า
ใสๆไปเรียนแล้วจ๊ะ
วิธีแก้มแดงเลือดฝาดธรรมชาติ
1.เตรียมกะละมังไม่ต้องใหญ่นะ ใส่น้ำ บวกกับน้ำแข็งลงไปเยอะๆเลย
2.ทิ้งไว้ประมาน 5 นาที
3.นำน้ำเย็นนั้นมาลูบหน้าไปมา เรื่อยๆ ก็จะได้หน้าแดงเลือดฝาดธรรมชาติจ่ะ แต่มันจะ
อยู่ได้แปปเดียวนะ ถ้าอยากให้มี ก็ให้ทำทุกๆ 2-3 วันจ่ะ
วิธีนี้เราใช้นะ ก็ดีอะ ไม่อันตรายด้วย ลองทำกันดูนะ สวย น่ารัก แบบธรรมชาติดีกว่า
เพิ่งอย่าอื่นนะ
เลิกการนอนดึกเถอะนะ เพราะเวลา เที่ยงคืน - ตี3 เป็นช่วงที่ร่างกายกำลังเผาผลาญ
และบำรุงผิวหน้าจ๊ะ จะได้ไม่อ้วนด้วยนะ !!
2.กินน้ำเยอะๆ เพื่อให้ผิวดี บวกกับผลไม้
3.เมื่อมั่นใจว่าร่างกายเราพร้อมแล้ว ก็อย่าเครียดด้วยล่ะ !!! มันเกี่ยวจิงๆน๊ะ
4.เอาล่ะมาเริ่มที่หน้ากันเล้ย ขั้นแรกให้ปรับสภาพผิวหน้าใครที่หน้ามีสิว หรือรอยด่างดำ
ก็ให้ใช้ผงวิเศษนะ ผสมกับน้ำ ให้พอข้น แล้วทาให้ทั่วหน้า พอกไว้ทั้งคืน เช้าวันต่อมาก็ล้าง
ด้วยน้ำเปล่าจ๊ะ ทำจนกว่าจะหาย แล้วเลิกใช้นะ ใช้ต่อกันไม่ดี
แต่บางคนที่ไม่มีสิว ก็ให้ใช้ผงวิเศษผสมกับน้ำมะนาว 1:4 ทาทิ้งไว้ 5-10
นาทีแล้วล้างออกด้วยน้ำเปล่า จ๊ะ สำหรับวิธีนี้ให้ 2-3 วันใช้ทีนะ
5.เอาล่ะหน้าเริ่มเสมอเท่ากันแล้วก็ต้องบำรุงให้มันเป็นอย่างนี้ตลอดไป โดยเลือกใช้ครีม
บำรุงหน้าที่บอกว่า "ปรับหน้าขาวเสมอเท่ากัน" เราใช้ของการ์นิเย่สีเขียว Pure a
ไม่แพง ดีด้วยจ๊ะ
6.ต่อไปก็เป็นการปรับหน้าขาวแล้วน๊า โดยเลือกใช้โฟมล้างหน้าที่เหมาะกับตัวเอง
ที่เขียนว่าปรับหน้าขาวนะจ๊ะ โฟมล้างหน้าอยากรู้ว่าแพ้ไม่แพ้ 1 อาทิตย์ออกอาการจ่ะ
7.เมื่อเวลาเจอแดดอย่าไปกลัวมันนะ !! สู้มัน ทาครีมกันแดด เลือกใช้ให้เหมาะกับ
แดดที่เจอนะจ๊ะ อย่าเวอร์ไป แล้วก็ควรทาก่อนออกแดด ซัก 30 นาทีนะจ๊ะ ถ้าอยากให้
หน้าเนียนก็เลือกที่ผสมตัวครีมทำให้หน้าสว่าง อย่าคิดว่าเหมือนรองพื้นนะไม่เหมือนกันจ่ะ
เราใช้ของ Misha ลองไปซื้อดูนะ ไม่แพง 300 ใช้ได้ประมาน 3 เดือนได้เรย
วิธีหน้าเนียนใสแบบธรรมชาติ
1.ทาครีมกันแดดตามปกติ
2.ลงด้วยแป้งตะหลับ ที่มีกันแดดด้วยก็ดีนะ ถ้าจะให้ดีเอาพัฟให้เปียกน้ำหมาดๆ จะได้
ทาแล้วติดนานๆจ๊ะ แป้งตัวนี้จะปรับให้ผิวหน้าเท่ากัน อย่าเลือกที่ขาวเวอร์เกินหน้าล่ะ
ถามคนขายก่อนนะ !! เช่น คนผิวขาวเหลือง เบอร์1 เป็นต้น
3.ทิ้งไว้ซัก 2 นาที ให้แป้งกลืนกับหน้า
4.ทาแป้งเด็ก ทับไปอีกที แป้งเด็กนี่คือแบบ เด็กเลยนะ !! แค่นีเพื่อนๆก็จะได้หน้า
ใสๆไปเรียนแล้วจ๊ะ
วิธีแก้มแดงเลือดฝาดธรรมชาติ
1.เตรียมกะละมังไม่ต้องใหญ่นะ ใส่น้ำ บวกกับน้ำแข็งลงไปเยอะๆเลย
2.ทิ้งไว้ประมาน 5 นาที
3.นำน้ำเย็นนั้นมาลูบหน้าไปมา เรื่อยๆ ก็จะได้หน้าแดงเลือดฝาดธรรมชาติจ่ะ แต่มันจะ
อยู่ได้แปปเดียวนะ ถ้าอยากให้มี ก็ให้ทำทุกๆ 2-3 วันจ่ะ
วิธีนี้เราใช้นะ ก็ดีอะ ไม่อันตรายด้วย ลองทำกันดูนะ สวย น่ารัก แบบธรรมชาติดีกว่า
เพิ่งอย่าอื่นนะ
France
France,officially the French Republicis a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans.[15] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as L’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Spain and Andorra. France's overseas departments and collectivities also share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel.
France is a member state of the European Union, the largest one by area. It is also the third largest in Europe behind Russia and Ukraine. It would be second if its extra-European territories like French Guiana were included. France has been a major power for several centuries with strong economic, cultural, military and political influence. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands.
France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is one of the most developed countries and possesses the fifth largest economy by nominal GDPand seventh largest economy by purchasing power parity. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[20] France is one of the founding members of the European Union. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world.
Origin of the name France
The word "Frank" had been loosely used from the fall of Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet's coronation as "King of the Franks" ("Rex Francorum") it became usual to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and previously held the title of "Duke of the Franks" ("dux Francorum"). This Frankish duchy encompassed most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom. The name "France" itself comes from Latin Francia, which literally means "land of the Franks," or "Frankland". There are various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[23] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This usage still survives in the name of the national currency prior to the adoption of the euro, the france .However, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks,[24] because as the conquering class only the Franks had the status of freemen. In German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means "Realm of the Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich. In some languages, such as Greek, France is still known as Gaul.
Rome to Revolution
The borders of modern France are approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was conquered for Rome by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and the Gauls eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and became so firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries that St. Jerome wrote that Gaul was the only region “free from heresy”.
In the 4th century AD, Gaul’s eastern frontier along the Rhine was overrun by Germanic tribes, principally the Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived. The modern name “France” derives from the name of the feudal domain of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe among the Germanic conquerors of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arianism (their King Clovis did so in 498); thus France obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille aînée de l’Église), and the French would adopt this as justification for calling themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”.Existence as a separate entity began with the Treaty of Verdun (843), with the division of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into East Francia, Middle Francia and West Francia. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) during the French Wars of Religion.The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.[26] In 1066, the Duke of Normandy added King of England to his titles. Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for centuries. Strong French counterattacks, helped by English weakness during the Wars of the Roses, won back mainland territory until only Calais remained. Under Mary I of England this was lost to the Spanish Netherlands.
Charles IV (The Fair) died without heir in 1328.[27] Under the rules of the Salic Law adopted in 1316, the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female line.[27] Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than passing though the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[27] However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[28] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Cluny Abbey in 2004 In the most notorious incident during the French Wars of Religion (1562–98), thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. At this time France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became, and remained until the 20th century, the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Transport
The railway network of France, which as of 2008 stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)] is the most extensive in Western Europe. It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use. The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.There are approximately 893,300 kilometres (555,071 mi) of serviceable roadway in France. The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%). Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines. France possesses the world's tallest road bridge: the Millau Viaduct, and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.There are 475 airports in France. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille, which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea. 14,932 kilometres (9,278 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.
France,officially the French Republicis a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans.[15] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as L’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Spain and Andorra. France's overseas departments and collectivities also share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel.
France is a member state of the European Union, the largest one by area. It is also the third largest in Europe behind Russia and Ukraine. It would be second if its extra-European territories like French Guiana were included. France has been a major power for several centuries with strong economic, cultural, military and political influence. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands.
France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is one of the most developed countries and possesses the fifth largest economy by nominal GDPand seventh largest economy by purchasing power parity. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[20] France is one of the founding members of the European Union. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world.
Origin of the name France
The word "Frank" had been loosely used from the fall of Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet's coronation as "King of the Franks" ("Rex Francorum") it became usual to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and previously held the title of "Duke of the Franks" ("dux Francorum"). This Frankish duchy encompassed most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom. The name "France" itself comes from Latin Francia, which literally means "land of the Franks," or "Frankland". There are various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[23] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This usage still survives in the name of the national currency prior to the adoption of the euro, the france .However, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks,[24] because as the conquering class only the Franks had the status of freemen. In German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means "Realm of the Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich. In some languages, such as Greek, France is still known as Gaul.
Rome to Revolution
The borders of modern France are approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was conquered for Rome by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and the Gauls eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and became so firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries that St. Jerome wrote that Gaul was the only region “free from heresy”.
In the 4th century AD, Gaul’s eastern frontier along the Rhine was overrun by Germanic tribes, principally the Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived. The modern name “France” derives from the name of the feudal domain of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe among the Germanic conquerors of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arianism (their King Clovis did so in 498); thus France obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille aînée de l’Église), and the French would adopt this as justification for calling themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”.Existence as a separate entity began with the Treaty of Verdun (843), with the division of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into East Francia, Middle Francia and West Francia. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) during the French Wars of Religion.The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.[26] In 1066, the Duke of Normandy added King of England to his titles. Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for centuries. Strong French counterattacks, helped by English weakness during the Wars of the Roses, won back mainland territory until only Calais remained. Under Mary I of England this was lost to the Spanish Netherlands.
Charles IV (The Fair) died without heir in 1328.[27] Under the rules of the Salic Law adopted in 1316, the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female line.[27] Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than passing though the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[27] However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[28] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Cluny Abbey in 2004 In the most notorious incident during the French Wars of Religion (1562–98), thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. At this time France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became, and remained until the 20th century, the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Transport
The railway network of France, which as of 2008 stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)] is the most extensive in Western Europe. It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use. The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.There are approximately 893,300 kilometres (555,071 mi) of serviceable roadway in France. The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%). Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines. France possesses the world's tallest road bridge: the Millau Viaduct, and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.There are 475 airports in France. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille, which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea. 14,932 kilometres (9,278 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.
France is a member state of the European Union, the largest one by area. It is also the third largest in Europe behind Russia and Ukraine. It would be second if its extra-European territories like French Guiana were included. France has been a major power for several centuries with strong economic, cultural, military and political influence. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands.
France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is one of the most developed countries and possesses the fifth largest economy by nominal GDPand seventh largest economy by purchasing power parity. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[20] France is one of the founding members of the European Union. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world.
Origin of the name France
The word "Frank" had been loosely used from the fall of Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet's coronation as "King of the Franks" ("Rex Francorum") it became usual to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and previously held the title of "Duke of the Franks" ("dux Francorum"). This Frankish duchy encompassed most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom. The name "France" itself comes from Latin Francia, which literally means "land of the Franks," or "Frankland". There are various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[23] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This usage still survives in the name of the national currency prior to the adoption of the euro, the france .However, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks,[24] because as the conquering class only the Franks had the status of freemen. In German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means "Realm of the Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich. In some languages, such as Greek, France is still known as Gaul.
Rome to Revolution
The borders of modern France are approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was conquered for Rome by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and the Gauls eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and became so firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries that St. Jerome wrote that Gaul was the only region “free from heresy”.
In the 4th century AD, Gaul’s eastern frontier along the Rhine was overrun by Germanic tribes, principally the Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived. The modern name “France” derives from the name of the feudal domain of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe among the Germanic conquerors of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arianism (their King Clovis did so in 498); thus France obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille aînée de l’Église), and the French would adopt this as justification for calling themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”.Existence as a separate entity began with the Treaty of Verdun (843), with the division of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into East Francia, Middle Francia and West Francia. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) during the French Wars of Religion.The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.[26] In 1066, the Duke of Normandy added King of England to his titles. Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for centuries. Strong French counterattacks, helped by English weakness during the Wars of the Roses, won back mainland territory until only Calais remained. Under Mary I of England this was lost to the Spanish Netherlands.
Charles IV (The Fair) died without heir in 1328.[27] Under the rules of the Salic Law adopted in 1316, the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female line.[27] Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than passing though the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[27] However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[28] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Cluny Abbey in 2004 In the most notorious incident during the French Wars of Religion (1562–98), thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. At this time France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became, and remained until the 20th century, the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Transport
The railway network of France, which as of 2008 stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)] is the most extensive in Western Europe. It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use. The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.There are approximately 893,300 kilometres (555,071 mi) of serviceable roadway in France. The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%). Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines. France possesses the world's tallest road bridge: the Millau Viaduct, and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.There are 475 airports in France. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille, which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea. 14,932 kilometres (9,278 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.
France,officially the French Republicis a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans.[15] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as L’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Spain and Andorra. France's overseas departments and collectivities also share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint-Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel.
France is a member state of the European Union, the largest one by area. It is also the third largest in Europe behind Russia and Ukraine. It would be second if its extra-European territories like French Guiana were included. France has been a major power for several centuries with strong economic, cultural, military and political influence. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific islands.
France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its main ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France is one of the most developed countries and possesses the fifth largest economy by nominal GDPand seventh largest economy by purchasing power parity. France enjoys a high standard of living as well as a high public education level, and has also one of the world's highest life expectancies. It is the most visited country in the world, receiving 82 million foreign tourists annually.[20] France is one of the founding members of the European Union. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and possesses the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world.
Origin of the name France
The word "Frank" had been loosely used from the fall of Rome to the Middle Ages, yet from Hugh Capet's coronation as "King of the Franks" ("Rex Francorum") it became usual to strictly refer to the Kingdom of Francia, which would become France. The Capetian Kings were descended from the Robertines, who had produced two Frankish kings, and previously held the title of "Duke of the Franks" ("dux Francorum"). This Frankish duchy encompassed most of modern northern France but because the royal power was sapped by regional princes the term was then applied to the royal demesne as shorthand. It was finally the name adopted for the entire Kingdom as central power was affirmed over the entire kingdom. The name "France" itself comes from Latin Francia, which literally means "land of the Franks," or "Frankland". There are various theories as to the origin of the name of the Franks. One is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[23] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave. This usage still survives in the name of the national currency prior to the adoption of the euro, the france .However, it is also possible that the word is derived from the ethnic name of the Franks,[24] because as the conquering class only the Franks had the status of freemen. In German, France is still called Frankreich, which literally means "Realm of the Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, Modern France is called Frankreich, while the Frankish Realm is called Frankenreich. In some languages, such as Greek, France is still known as Gaul.
Rome to Revolution
The borders of modern France are approximately the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was conquered for Rome by Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC, and the Gauls eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and became so firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries that St. Jerome wrote that Gaul was the only region “free from heresy”.
In the 4th century AD, Gaul’s eastern frontier along the Rhine was overrun by Germanic tribes, principally the Franks, from whom the ancient name of “Francie” was derived. The modern name “France” derives from the name of the feudal domain of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe among the Germanic conquerors of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arianism (their King Clovis did so in 498); thus France obtained the title “Eldest daughter of the Church” (La fille aînée de l’Église), and the French would adopt this as justification for calling themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”.Existence as a separate entity began with the Treaty of Verdun (843), with the division of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire into East Francia, Middle Francia and West Francia. Western Francia approximated the area occupied by modern France and was the precursor to modern France.The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) during the French Wars of Religion.The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.[26] In 1066, the Duke of Normandy added King of England to his titles. Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for centuries. Strong French counterattacks, helped by English weakness during the Wars of the Roses, won back mainland territory until only Calais remained. Under Mary I of England this was lost to the Spanish Netherlands.
Charles IV (The Fair) died without heir in 1328.[27] Under the rules of the Salic Law adopted in 1316, the crown of France could not pass to a woman, nor could the line of kinship pass through the female line.[27] Accordingly, the crown passed to the cousin of Charles, Philip of Valois, rather than passing though the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. In the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[27] However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[28] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Cluny Abbey in 2004 In the most notorious incident during the French Wars of Religion (1562–98), thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. At this time France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became, and remained until the 20th century, the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. In addition, France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Transport
The railway network of France, which as of 2008 stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi)] is the most extensive in Western Europe. It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph) in commercial use. The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.There are approximately 893,300 kilometres (555,071 mi) of serviceable roadway in France. The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighboring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%). Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines. France possesses the world's tallest road bridge: the Millau Viaduct, and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.There are 475 airports in France. Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport located in the vicinity of Paris is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille, which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea. 14,932 kilometres (9,278 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.
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